Titlebook: Engineers in Western Europe: Ascent—and Decline?; A Profession Torn Be Rolf Torstendahl Book 2021 The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Aut

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Emigration, Immigration and Temporary Visitsrom belonging to the one or the other of these groups going abroad. Among the foreign students in both institutes are many nationalities. Their presence was occasioned by political occurrences in their home countries in many cases, but also the attraction to institutes of reputation played a great role.

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Organisational Ramificationry engineers hardly met them in their work. The new national organisations were more common-place, and they often articulated political ideologies and goals. The fascist take-over of professional organisations in Italy, and the corresponding development in Nazi-Germany, showed that professional power was not politically harmless.

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How a Trade Became a Professioney are found in both state organisation, especially for defence purposes, and in the development of handicraft. The first led to fortifications, artillery, and roads and bridges, while the latter got its guild kinship as a legacy from its root. Technology was a skill and a knowledge, and both elemen

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State Servants: Education, Assistance, Dependencen several countries in Europe state policy followed a common pattern, which was rather of Austrian and Prussian origin than the one established in revolutionary France. Vocational schools were further developed into institutes for education in technology, and for this step the engagement of the stat

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Engineers Organiseutions” of engineers (as they were known) were without any relation to education, the organisations in other countries very often clearly related themselves to one school or a type of schools, from which they recruited their members. The VDI in Germany was an exception as it was open for engineers (

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