Titlebook: Biology of Infectious Disease; From Molecules to Ec Michael G. Milgroom Textbook 2023 The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), unde

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Protozoa,otic lineages. Most protozoa are free-living in moist environments where they feed mainly on bacteria. Relatively few are associated with multicellular eukaryotes, ranging from mutualists to parasites. The most severe diseases caused by protozoan parasites in humans occur mainly in tropical regions,

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Helminths,nths in humans are in three groups: roundworms in the phylum Nematoda ?and cestodes (tapeworms) and trematodes (flukes) in the phylum Platyhelminthes (flatworms). Almost half of the nematode species are free-living; the other half are parasitic on animals or plants. Similarly, most species of flatwo

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Fungi,otrophs). They are essential for nutrient cycling, especially by decomposing wood. Fungi are heterotrophic; they secrete degradative enzymes to break down complex organic molecules (such as cellulose) into simpler molecules (such as simple sugars) they absorb for nutrition. Fungi grow as filamentous

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Vertebrate Immune Systems,munity is found in all cellular organisms. In innate immunity, conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) on invading microbes are recognized by pattern-recognition receptors (PRRs) in hosts to trigger responses such as phagocytosis, or secretion of antimicrobial peptides or signaling

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Evasion and Suppression of Immunity,ses. Pathogens collectively evade or suppress practically every type of immune response, although each pathogen deploys a unique set of mechanisms. Passive immune evasion is exemplified by immune masking and antigenic variation. Immune masking is the physical shielding immunostimulatory molecules (P

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Antimicrobial Resistance,on of antibiotic resistance has rendered many antibiotics ineffective. Antimicrobial resistance has also evolved to drugs aimed at inhibiting viruses, fungi, protozoa, and helminths. Antimicrobial resistance is conferred by several mechanisms: inactivation or degradation of drugs; target-site modifi